Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English by (Glasman-Deal, 2009) takes all the credit for images and examples.
Structure
A Brief History of Abstract
The structure and content of the Abstract have changed in recent decades. Before online publication databases, the Abstract was printed at the top of a research article and its function was mainly to encourage the reader to continue reading the article and to facilitate that reading by providing a brief preview. The reader and the writer didn’t consider the Abstract of a research article as an independent unit because it was not normally read without reference to the article itself.
Abstract databases allow scientists to search and scan the scientific literature and then decide which research articles they want to read in detail. Abstracts compete for attention in online databases and need to persuade readers to obtain a copy, not just encourage them to keep reading a paper they have already accessed.
Many people will read the title more than the Abstract, and many more will read the Abstract than the whole paper. Therefore, Abstracts are representations of the research article that need to have independent validity. They should:
- Make sense as a standalone, self-contained description of the research article.
- Present the key points and results of the research even if readers never see the whole article.
The best time to write an Introduction is after the whole article has been written.
Two Models for Abstract
A useful writing model can be transferred, but don’t expect a perfect model.
All models are wrong, but some are useful. The famous quote about statistical models by George E.P. Box also applies to writing models.
Four Basic Components
| Model Components |
|---|
| Part I |
| Background |
| Aim |
| Problem |
| What the Paper Does |
| Part II |
| Methodology/Materials |
| Part III |
| Results |
| Achievement/Contribution |
| Implications |
| Part IV |
| Limitations |
| Future Work |
Train of Thoughts
Why Written in the Last
- The style and length of the Abstract depend on where you plan to submit it and that decision may be taken late in, or even after, the writing process.
- The content of the Abstract is derived from the rest of the article.
- The Abstract does not contain material that is not already in the paper.
Two Models
Most Abstracts are results-focused, but there are two models:
- The first model is similar to a summary and structured
- Deal with all main subsections and can have subtitles.
- The second model is more common
- focuses primarily on one or two aspects of the study (usually Methodology and Results)
- Choosing which model to use is based on the type of research you have done and the Guide for Authors of the journal. It’s typically determined by the journal rather than the author. Generally speaking, the more narrow and specified your research topic, the less likely you are to use the summary format. Because in a narrow research field, most readers already know the background.
A good writing model for the Abstract section should answer the following questions:
- How do writers normally start the Abstract?
- What type of information should it contain, and in what order?
- How do writers normally end the Abstract?
Grammar and Writing Skills
Verb Tense
Verb tense is especially important in the Abstract because the strict word limit means that you may need to omit phrases that tell the reader whose work you are referring to, or what you think about your results.
Gap/Problem
| (Present Simple) |
|---|
| The main problem, however, is… |
| We examine why these models have difficulty with… |
| However, this assumption is not valid when… |
| This is complicated by… |
| However, this assessment cannot be based solely on… |
| Although it is known theoretically that… |
What the Paper Itself Does
| (Present Simple) |
|---|
| This paper presents a new methodology for… |
| In this paper, we apply… |
| This study reports an improved design for… |
| In this paper, we extend an existing approach to… |
| We consider a novel system of… |
| The implications for learning algorithms are discussed… |
| New numerical results are presented here for… |
Methodology
| (Past Simple) |
|---|
| Two catalysts were examined in order to… |
| Samples were prepared for electron microscopy using… |
| A crystallizer was constructed using… |
| The effect of pH was investigated by means of… |
| The data obtained were evaluated using… |
| A permeameter was used to investigate… |
| (Present Simple - Calculations or Equations) |
| Numerical examples are analyzed in detail… |
| The calculated wavelengths are compared to… |
| Several models are created using… |
| The accuracy is evaluated by… |
| A detailed comparison is made between… |
| The method is illustrated on blends of homopolymers… |
Results
| (Present Simple) |
|---|
| We find that oxygen reduction may occur up to 20 microns from the interface… |
| The model consistently under-predicts… |
| The ratio shifts towards… |
| We show that this theory also applies to… |
| The most accurate readings are obtained from… |
| We find that this does not vary… |
| These examples illustrate that overpotential is better described in terms of… |
| (Past Simple) |
| The Y-type was found to produce… |
| The hydrocarbons showed a marked increase in… |
| No dilation was observed… |
| This was consistent with… |
| Organized fibers were found after 6 weeks… |
| These profiles were affected by… |
| This finding correlated with… |
It’s possible to use two different tenses in one sentence. Even if the first part of the sentence is in the Past Simple tense, you can decide to put the findings/results or the implications of the findings/results in the Present Simple tense if you believe it is strong enough to be considered a fact or truth.
| (Past Simple + Present Simple) |
|---|
| The experiments demonstrated there are two matrices… |
| It was found that proteins are produced from… |
| The results demonstrated that the morphology is different… |
| This image suggested that there is a direct relationship between… |
Achievements
| (Present Perfect) |
|---|
| We have obtained accurate quantitative LIF measurements… |
| This investigation has revealed that… |
| We have devised a strategy which allows… |
| We have demonstrated the feasibility of this approach by… |
| A novel material has been produced which… |
| Three-dimensional FE predictions have confirmed that… |
| Considerable insight has been gained concerning… |
| (Present Simple) |
| This process can successfully be combined with… |
| The framework described here is both simple and universal… |
| The value of our approach lies in… |
| This provides a powerful tool for… |
| This novel film is mechanically robust and is able to… |
| The algorithm presented here ensures that… |
Applications
| (Present Simple) |
|---|
| This process is suitable for the production of… |
| This framework can be used to evaluate… |
| This approach can be applied to… |
| This demonstrates the potential for general applicability to… |
| These profiles may serve as a predictor for… |
| This framework can be used to evaluate… |
Length
The Abstract usually has a strict word limit. Most Abstracts are between 80–150 words and longer Abstracts are between 150–250 words, but they should be in a single paragraph. For your first draft, don’t worry too much about the word limit. Once you have decided which of the two Abstract models you will use, start by including whatever you think is important, and then gradually remove words, phrases, and even sentences that are not essential.
Language
Think of the search phrases and keywords that people looking for your work might use. Make sure that those exact words or phrases appear in your Abstract so that they will turn up at the top of a search result listing.
To attract a wider audience, the Abstracts are sometimes written in a slightly less technical way. You can use the acronym, abbreviation, or technical term in the Abstract, but you should first say what it means or stands for.
Vocabulary
Background
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| a number of studies | it is known that |
| exist(s) | it is widely accepted that |
| frequently | occur(s) |
| generally | often |
| is a common technique | popular |
| is/are assumed to | produce(s) |
| is/are based on | recent research |
| is/are determined by | recent studies |
| is/are influenced by | recently |
| is/are related to | recently-developed |
| it has recently been shown that | |
Aim
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| in order to | to examine |
| our approach | to investigate |
| the aim of this study | to study |
| to compare | with the aim of |
Problem
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| (an) alternative approach | impractical |
| a need for | inaccurate |
| although | inconvenient |
| complicated | it should be possible to |
| desirable | limited |
| difficulty | no able to |
| disadvantage | problem |
| drawback | require |
| essential | risk |
| expensive | time-consuming |
| however | unsuccessful |
What the Paper Does
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| address | consider |
| analyze | describe |
| argue | examine |
| compare | extend |
| consider | include |
| describe | present |
| discuss | report |
| emphasize | review |
| examine | |
| extend | |
| introduce | |
| present | |
| propose | |
| review | |
| show | |
Methodology/Materials
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| was/were assembled | was/were modelled |
| was/were calculated | was/were performed |
| was/were constructed | was/were recorded |
| was/were evaluated | was/were studied |
| was/were formulated | was/were treated |
| was/were measured | was/were used |
Results
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| caused | was/were achieved |
| decreased | was/were found |
| had no effect | was/were identical |
| increased | was/were observed |
| it was noted/observed that… | was/were obtained |
| occurred | was/were present |
| produced | was/were unaffected (by) |
| resulted in | yielded |
| was identified | |
Achievement/Contribution
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|
| accurate | achieve |
| better | allow |
| consistent | demonstrate |
| effective | ensure |
| enhanced | guarantee |
| exact | obtain |
| improved | validate |
| new | |
| novel | compare well with |
| significant | for the first time |
| simple | in good agreement |
| suitable | |
| superior | |
Implications
| Col 1 |
|---|
| indicate(s) that |
| means(s) that |
| suggest(s) that |
| it is thought that |
| we conclude that |
| we suggest that |
| |
| can |
| may |
Applications
| Col 1 |
|---|
| applicability |
| can be applied |
| can be used |
| make it possible to |
| potential use |
| relevant for/in |
Limitations and Future Work
| Col 1 |
|---|
| a preliminary attempt |
| not significant |
| slightly |
| future directions |
| future work |
Reference
- Glasman-Deal, H. (2009). Science research writing for non-native speakers of English. World Scientific.
