Science Research Writing - Introduction
Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English by (Glasman-Deal, 2009) takes all the credit for images and examples.
Structure
Information Flow
It’s probably true that your science writing has focused on describing what you did and what you found, which will help you write the central report section. However, writing an Introduction is a new task. In the introduction, you start by being fairly general and gradually narrowing your focus, whereas the opposite is true in the Discussion/Conclusion.
The best time to write an Introduction is after the report section has been written, or at least drafted.
A Model for Introduction
A useful writing model can be transferred, but don’t expect a perfect model.
All models are wrong, but some are useful. The famous quote about statistical models by George E.P. Box also applies to writing models.
Four Basic Components
| Model Components |
|---|
| Part I |
| Establish the importance of your field |
| Provide background facts/information (possibly from research) |
| Define the terminology in the title/keywords |
| Present the problem area/current research focus |
| Part II |
| Previous and/or current research, and contributions |
| Part III |
| Locate a gap in the research |
| Describe the problem you will address |
| Present a prediction to be tested |
| Part IV |
| Describe the present paper |
Train of Thoughts
A good writing model for the Introduction section should answer the following questions:
- How do writers normally start the Introduction?
- What type of information should it contain, and in what order?
- How do writers normally end the Introduction?
When writing an Introduction, ask yourself the following questions:
- Which of the research papers I have read should be mentioned somewhere in the Introduction?
- Which ones should be part of the background and which ones should go in the literature review which comes later?
- In what order should I mention them? There are several options:
- chronological
- different approaches/theories/models; begin each sentence with However or On the other hand
- general/specific: Start with general and gradually move to research that is closer to your own
Miscellaneous
How to find out what the author is doing in a sentence, rather than what s/he is saying? Here are some methods:
- What’s the difference for you as a reader if a sentence were deleted?
- Look at the grammar and vocabulary clues.
- What’s the tense and what is that tense normally used for?
- Why did the author change the tense?
Include references wherever it is useful, even in a sentence whose function is primarily to provide a transition. Here are some of the reasons:
- Plagiarism is unprofessional.
- Give readers a chance to find and read the study mentioned.
- Indicate the writer is familiar with the field.
Tense for Part IV
- Use the Present Simple tense to describe the work itself and the Past Simple tense to talk about the aim of the work.
- It is also possible to state the aim in the Present Simple tense. This is especially true in cases where the aim is only partially achieved in the paper you are submitting and the rest of the work will be done and reported on at a later stage.
Grammar and Writing Skills
Tenses
Present Simple
- In science writing, the Present Simple tense is used to state accepted facts and truth, but it’s the writer’s decision to decide what qualifies as facts and truth.
- Using the Present Simple tense means that you believe your findings and deductions are strong enough to be considered facts or truth.
One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles and there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.
Past Simple / Present Perfect
- The Present Perfect tense is considered more relevant to the situation now than the Past Simple tense.
For example, Penney et al. showed that PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques, and more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such composites. However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, little attention has been paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component.
Changing Tense
Tense changes are always meaningful, and they always signal a change in the function of the information.
Don’t change tense randomly, and make sure you change tense when you should.
Signaling Language
One of the most common errors in writing is failing to connect one sentence or idea to the next. The space between a full stop and the next capital letter is dangerous for the writer and readers. One of the tasks of a writer is to make sure the gap is closed so that the reader is carried carefully from one piece of information to the next.
Here are several ways to fill the gap:
Overlap, meaning to repeat something from the previous sentence
The pattern of inflammation during an asthma attack is different from that seen in stable asthma. In stable asthma, the total number of inflammatory cells does not increase.
One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles. As a result, there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.
Pronoun or Pro-form
Many researchers have suggested ways of reducing costs without affecting the quality of the image. These methods rely on data structures built during a preprocessing step.
On the basis of these criteria, it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer blends using PLA and a hydrocarbon rubber (PI). This combination of two mechanistically distinct polymerizations formed a novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI significantly increased flexibility.
Join the first sentence to the next one with a semicolon or a relative clause
The procedure for testing whether components are operationally safe usually takes many hours ; this means that tests are rarely repeated.
It has received much attention over the past few decades due to its biodegradable properties, which offer important economic benefits.
Signaling sentence connector
Cause as due to (the fact that) because on account of (the fact that) since in view of (the fact that) Be careful with since, which is also often used to mean “from that time”. Use another word if there is any possibility of confusion.
All of them can be used at the start of a sentence.
Result therefore as a result (of which) consequently which is why hence so - Don’t start sentences with the word so, because it’s too informal.
- You can sometimes use then, but it won’t always work. That’s why it was excluded from the list.
Contrast / Difference however on the other hand whereas while but by contrast - Be careful with while, which is also often used to mean “at that/the same time”. Use another word if there is any possibility of confusion.
- on the contrary and conversely don’t fit into this category because they don’t only communicate differences; they communicate the fact that “exactly the opposite is true”.
Unexpectedness (Used at the beginning of a sentence) (Used at the middle of a sentence) Although / Even though / Though nevertheless Despite / In spite of however Regardless of yet Notwithstanding nonetheless even so - still and anyway are more informal, therefore excluded from the list.
Addition in addition also moreover secondly (etc.) furthermore in the second place (etc.) apart from what is more - besides has a similar meaning, but it’s more powerful and should be used in more persuasive contexts.
Passive or Active
- The word we can be used to refer to your research group or team, but not
people or humanity in general; It’s better to use a construction with it, such as “It’s known/thought that …”; It’s more common to use the passive instead of we, especially in the central report section. - Cannot write your thesis using I, so probably write in the passive. Use words like here and in this study to let readers know when you are referring to your own work.
Use a “dummy” subject to take the place of I or we.
This article describes an algorithm for clustering sequences into index classes.
The present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting such a component.
- The problem with using the passive in formal writing is that the agent (the person who performed the action of the verb) is often not mentioned in the sentence, so the reader may not know who did it or who identified it. This can cause confusion and for that reason, it is sometimes clearer to use a dummy subject rather than the ‘agentless’ passive.
Paragraphing
Paragraphs are an important visual aid for effective reading (skimming) and writing.
Paragraphing for Effective Reading (Skimming)
- Read the title, and try to predict the type of information you expect to see.
- Glance at the name of the author. What you know about the writer will help you predict and evaluate the content.
- Check the date, and use it to help you assess the content.
- Read the abstract to find out what the researchers did and/or what they found.
- Read the first paragraph, without trying to understand all the words.
- Glance at the first sentence of each paragraph, without trying to understand all the words.
- Glance at each figure/table and read its title, to try and find out what type of visual data is included.
- Read the last paragraph, especially if it has a subtitle like “Summary” or “Conclusion”.
Paragraphing for Writing
No.6 - Glance at the first sentence of each paragraph
A paragraph in academic writing often starts with a topic sentence, which gives the main idea of the paragraph, and tells the reader what the paragraph is about. The rest are related to this idea by discussing, describing, defining, arguing, giving examples, rephrasing, etc. When the ‘topic’ or idea moves too far away from the first sentence, the writer usually begins a new paragraph.
It’s easy to form poor paragraphing habits:
- often write one-sentence paragraphs
- often write very long paragraphs
- not sure when to start a new paragraph
When you are planning your paper, write down each idea/concept that you want to talk about, checking that they are in a logical order and then listing what you want to say about each, using bullet points.
Vocabulary
Establishing Significance
| Col 1 | Col 2 |
|---|---|
| (a) basic issue | economically important |
| (a) central problem | (has) focused (on) |
| (a) challenging area | for a number of years |
| (a) classic feature | for many years |
| (a) common issue | frequent(ly) |
| (a) considerable number | generally |
| (a) crucial issue | (has been) extensively studied |
| (a) current problem | importance/important |
| (a) dramatic increase | many |
| (an) essential element | most |
| (a) fundamental issue | much study in recent years |
| (a) growth in popularity | nowadays |
| (an) increasing number | numerous investigations |
| (an) interesting field | of great concern |
| (a) key technique | of growing interest |
| (a) leading cause (of) | often |
| (a) major issue | one of the best-known |
| (a) popular method | over the past X years |
| (a) powerful tool/method | play a key role (in) |
| (a) profitable technology | play a major part (in) |
| (a) range (of) | possible benefits |
| (a) rapid rise | potential applications |
| (a) remarkable variety | recent decades |
| (a) significant increase | recent(ly) |
| (a) striking feature | today |
| (a) useful method | traditional(ly) |
| (a) vital aspect | typical(ly) |
| (a) worthwhile study | usually |
| (an) advantage | well-documented |
| attracted much attention | well-known |
| benefit/beneficial | widely recognized |
| commercial interest | widespread |
| during the past two decades | worthwhile |
Verbs in Literature Review
| Col 1 | Col 2 | Col 3 | Col 4 |
|---|---|---|---|
| achieve | deal with | illustrate | prove |
| address | debate | implement | provide |
| adopt | define | imply | publish |
| analyze | demonstrate | improve | put forward |
| apply | describe | incorporate | realize |
| argue | design | indicate | recognize |
| assume | detect | interpret | recommend |
| attempt | determine | introduce | record |
| calculate | discover | investigate | report |
| carry out | discuss | measure | reveal |
| categorize | enhance | model | review |
| choose | establish | monitor | revise |
| claim | estimate | note | show |
| classify | evaluate | observe | simulate |
| collect | examine | obtain | solve |
| compare | explain | overcome | state |
| concentrate | explore | perform | study |
| conclude | extend | point out | suggest |
| conduct | find | predict | support |
| confirm | focus on | prefer | test |
| consider | formulate | present | undertake |
| construct | generate | produce | use |
| correlate | identify | propose | utilize |
Gap/Question/Problem/Criticism
| Col 1 | Col 2 | Col 3 | Col 4 |
|---|---|---|---|
| absence of | ill-defined | misunderstand | redundant |
| alternative approach | impractical | need for clarification | remain unstudied |
| ambiguous | improbable | need to re-examine | require clarification |
| challenge | inaccurate | neglect | restricted |
| computationally demanding | inadequate | next step | risk |
| confined to | incapable | no correlation | suffer |
| confused | incompatible | non-existent | time-consuming |
| defect | incomplete | not addressed | unanswered |
| deficient | inconclusive | not apparent | uncertain |
| demand clarification | inconsistent | not dealt with | unclear |
| difficulty | inconvenient | not repeatable | uneconomic |
| disadvantage | incorrect | not studied | unfounded |
| disagree | ineffective | not sufficiently + adj. | unlikely |
| doubtful | inefficient | not well understood | unnecessary |
| drawback | inferior | not/no longer useful | unproven |
| error | inflexible | obstacle | unrealistic |
| expensive | insufficient | of little value | unresolved |
| fail to | lack | over-simplistic | unsatisfactory |
| fall short of | limitation | overlook | unsolved |
| false | meaningless | poor | unsuccessful |
| far from perfect | miscalculate | problem | unsupported |
| flaw | misjudge | problematic | weakness |
| gap in our knowledge | misleading | questionable |
| Col 1 |
|---|
| it is necessary to… |
| few studies have… |
| there is an urgent need… |
| there is growing concern… |
| this is not the case… |
| Unfortunately, … |
| little evidence is available |
| little work has been done |
| more work is needed |
- Some of these words/phrases express very strong criticism. Try to alter them to make them more polite.
The Present Work
| Col 1 | Col 2 | Col 3 | Col 4 |
|---|---|---|---|
| able to | evaluate | novel method | provide |
| accurate(ly) | excellent results | objective | report |
| aim | expect | offer | reveal |
| approach | facilitate | outline | section |
| attempt | goal | overview | simple |
| compare | illustrate | paper | straightforward |
| concentrate | improve | powerful | study |
| conclude | investigate | practical | succeed |
| describe | innovation | predict | successful |
| discuss | intention | present work | valuable |
| effective(ly) | manage to | presented in detail | |
| efficient(ly) | minimize | project | |
| enable | new | propose |
- Don’t rely on one-size-fits-all verbs such as discuss; some chapters/sections do not “discuss” anything, and even if they do, their main purpose may be to compare things, analyze things or describe things rather than to discuss them.
Reference
- Glasman-Deal, H. (2009). Science research writing for non-native speakers of English. World Scientific.